This research is dedicated to my friend, Cheryl Stearns,   multiple World Champion and World's most awarded skydiver.

The Fundamentals of Classic Style Skydiving

by Vladimir Milosavljevic, assisted by Tamara Koyn

 

 

Although very simple in maneuvering description,

classic style skydiving has very interesting history

and a story that is still not over.

 

 

***Historical overview***

 

Style is a discipline that requires of a jumper to make four 360-degree turns and two back loops. First style competitions were held in middle 50’s of the last century, first only with turns and later loops were added. At that time, style jumpers were jumping with large, round parachutes, with a total weight of about 50 lbs. Freefall maneuverability with these parachutes was limited due to the uncomfortable design of the military-style equipment used, but also due to the improper mass distribution that prevented fast rotations. The results obtained with these parachutes were about 8 sec for the whole performance, 4 turns and 2 loops.

 

Later, parachutes became smaller and with a different distribution of mass. Jumpers also invented different flying techniques which first involved increasing the freefall velocity before maneuvering and later, decreasing stability in maneuvering itself. Parallel with these things, jumpsuit producers also gave their contribution to the maneuverability and designed jump suites with slick materials in order to get even more freefall speed and maximum maneuverability possible. With such concepts style jumpers significantly improved their performance and nowadays their scores count even less then 6 sec. Now, the question appears, is the progression story over?

 

I think, it is not.

 

To understand better what is going on in style performance and what tendency style jumping will have in the future, I will present some analysis that will include mechanic and aerodynamic factors, necessary to explain fundaments of style jumping maneuvers. In these explanations, some simplifying will be used i.e. neglecting the factors that do not play an important role.

 

 

***Turns***

 

Freefall turn is defined as a relative angular movement around some vertical axis. In accordance with Newton’s First Law of Motion, a turn must be initiated by the moment and stopped by the moment in opposite direction.

 

In skydiving, a moment could be defined as an action that can set our body into a rotational maneuver. It could be created by forces in couple, or by some eccentric aerodynamic force. Here, eccentric aerodynamic force is a resultant aerodynamic force that is not in line with body’s center of gravity. By the way, if this resultant aerodynamic force passes through skydiver’s center of gravity, then a force is concentric and a skydiver’s body will stay in equilibrium or go into translation.

 

The intensity of the moment, or it's ability to create rotation around some axis, is equal to the product of the intensity of the force and the shortest distance from the force vector to the axis (A). We can mathematically write it like this...

 

M=F*d

 

where M is the moment, F is the force and d is the shortest distance from the force vector to the axis.

 

This means that a moment is greater if we either increase the force or the distance from the force vector to the observed axis, or both.

 

Moment, by it's definition

     Cheryl Stearns performs a turn. Photo by: Sean Capogreco

 

In skydiving, we can regulate the distance of the force vector from the observed axis by changing the distance of the control surfaces from the axis of rotation. The greater the distance, the greater the moment. That’s why in style, some jumpers start their performance wide, allowing them to increase this

 steering moment. However, this action has also some other effects which we will discuss later.

 

Now, let’s look at the fundament of the aerodynamic force of drag itself… It consists of several factors:

 

    F = Cx * ½ρv^2 * A

World Champion Thomas Jeannerot dives after exit over the French Alps. Photo by: Oliver Platt

 

Where F is the force, Cx – coefficient of drag, ρ is air density, v is freefall velocity and A is area exposed to the relative wind.

 

Assuming that an air density ρ has a constant value, these factors explain that in skydiving in general, jumpers increase their steering force by:

 

        1)       increasing their freefall velocity

        2)       Increasing the area of their control surfaces exposed to the relative wind, and

        3)       increasing the coefficient of drag on their control surfaces.

 

In style, jumpers increase their freefall velocity in a long dive before starting their performance. They increase the area of their control surfaces by wearing large gloves and they increase the coefficient of drag by cupping their palms in maneuvering.

 

Now, to understand more fundaments of the turn, let’s become familiar with Newton’s Second Law of Motion.

 

 

***Newton's Second Law of motion***

 

In rotations, Newton’s Second Law of Motion defines a relationship between the moment, rotational inertia and angular acceleration.

 

     M=I*a   

 

Angular acceleration is defined as the rate of increasing or decreasing the angular speed. The angular acceleration is bigger if we change our angular speed more rapidly. In style turns, we need the biggest angular acceleration possible because that provides fastest start and fastest stop. OK, but how to achieve this?

 

Let’s analyze Newton’s formula again:

 

     M=I*a

 

M is the moment, I is the rotational inertia and a is the angular acceleration.

 

We can solve this formula for angular acceleration and we get:

 

     a=M/I

 

Here, we see that the angular acceleration depends on the moment and rotational inertia. That’s the moment divided by the rotational inertia. This means, we will get the biggest angular acceleration if we increase the moment as much as possible and decrease the rotational inertia as much as possible.

 

Few steps earlier, we defined a moment; how to increase it and how to decrease it. Now we need to explain a term “rotational inertia”.

 

 

***Rotational Inertia***

 

Rotational inertia is a characteristic of the body that resists angular acceleration. This resistance is caused by body mass and the positioning of that body mass in relation to the axis of rotation.

 

Basically, the following picture and formula explains how this fundamentally works.

 

    

 

I=S(m*r^2)

 

Where I is rotational inertia, m is body mass, and r is radius.

 

The Rotational Inertia of the body is the sum of all the masses of the body, each multiplied by the square of their distance from the axis of rotation (A).

 

This shows that the larger the masses and the farther away they are from the axis of rotation, the greater the rotational inertia. …and vice versa, the smaller the masses and the closer they are to the axis of rotation, the smaller the rotational inertia.

 

Now, here in style, we have a scientific conflict! Earlier we said that we have a greater steering moment if we increase the distance of the control surface from the axis of rotation, means to fly wide, and we just implied that we should fly narrow to decrease our rotational inertia. So, then, when flying in the style tuck position with our hands wide, which has more influence?  Increased steering moment? …or the increased rotational inertia?

 

In accordance with my calculations, if the steering is done correctly, the steering moment has a greater influence, telling us that style jumpers should fly wide.

   

         

 

It is true that rotational inertia changes more rapidly by changing the distance because it depends to the square of the distance. However, flying wide or flying narrow in the style tuck position, considers only moving the arms: away or towards the axis of rotation, which is actually moving of only about 10% of our total body mass. This does not produce significant impact on rotational inertia of our body, while at the same time it produces directly proportional change in the intensity of our steering moment. This means, when flying wide, our increased steering moment has greater influence, and is overcoming our slightly increased rotational inertia!

 

Now, let’s review another magical thing…

 

If we look more closely at the equation for rotational inertia,

 

     I=S(m*r^2)

 

we can notice that, for the same body, this sum is the smallest if we measure those distances (r) from some CG axis. That means, that among all the parallel axes of rotation, the rotational inertia is the smallest for CG axis. This practically means that, for the same rotational input on the same body configuration, the rotation is the fastest if a body rotates around it’s CG!

 

    

 

Or we can explain it in another way…

 

We may notice that if the axis of rotation passes through the center of gravity, more of the body’s mass is closer to the axis of rotation. This keeps rotational inertia to a minimum. If the axis of rotation does not pass through the center of gravity, more of the body’s mass will be further away from the axis of rotation, thereby increasing the rotational inertia. So, in any case, it’s important to know that style jumpers must rotate around their center of gravity in order to achieve the fastest time possible.

 

Now, the question is: how to rotate around CG!?

 

 

***CG Rotation***

 

To rotate around the axis that is passing through our center of gravity, we must apply forces in couple that will satisfy the following equation:

 

    

 

F1*d1=F2*d2

 

where F is a force, d is the shortest distance from the force vector to the axis (A), 1 and 2 are references, like for the hands, 1 is reference for the left hand and 2 is a reference for the right hand.

 

Also, the straight line that connects the points of force application, i.e., our forehands, must pass through our body’s CG. This is very important because, although the forces could be in couple, those will never give CG rotation if this rule is not satisfied.

 

Usually, with proper commanding, steering forces in style turns are equal, so the distances should be also equal. Here we can conclude that in style performance, we should actually apply our forearms so that one pulls forward, another one – backward, symmetrically to our CG.

 

         

 

Any other force application will produce some eccentric force situation and additional adjustments to the commanding will be necessary. This, however, eats fragments of seconds of our performance time and is not desirable at all.

 

 

***Basic body Position***

 

 

By defining the proper way of maneuvering in style turns, we can also define our basic, steady balancing, body position from which we start and stop efficient maneuvers with minimal body movements. Assuming that most sportsmen have some standard moving capabilities, minimal body movements in commanding provide saving of our performance time as well.

 

For this purpose, a proper basic tucked position would be with palms of our hands positioned symmetrically and on the opposite sides of CG, so that imaginary straight line passes through both our palms and CG. This position will enable same path of both hands in commanding action which implies minimum amount of performance time as well.

 

Here, it is very important to notice that, in order to have these elements on it’s proper place, we must be tucked properly, so that our CG does not go too much forward or too much aft.
 
Thomas Jeannerot in style tuck position. Photo by: Oliver Platt

 

Also, usually after performing a loop, advanced style jumpers are starting another turn from more head-down position; however, even then, all these mentioned elements must be kept in order to continue flying with maximum efficiency. …hands on the opposite side of CG, same commanding action etc.

 

 

***Stability***

Cheryl Stearns maneuvers on the edge of stability.    Photo by: Sean Capogreco

 

From the standing point of theory of Skydiving Stability (fundaments of physical laws of skydiving stability are explained in a great depth in instructional DVD “Body Pilot in Command”), the fastest maneuverability in style will be achieved if we fly in an unstable body position. Instability provides faster response to our initial commanding and faster relative maneuvering itself. An unstable position is basically any position in which center of pressure (hanging point) is below the center of gravity and it could be easily recognized as a concave surface exposed to the relative wind.

 

With this additional knowledge, we can still affirm that the most suitable and most effective unstable basic body position is a style tuck. This position provides a high level of instability, minimal movements in commanding and almost minimal rotational inertia around vertical and pitch axis.

 

On the other side, flying in this position requires skill to remain balanced on the top of the bubble of air, but we must have in mind that we will never be able to maneuver fast if we don’t use this or eventually other unstable body position.

 

Style jumpers should fly as unstable as they can handle without tumbling over onto their back!

 

 

***Loops***

 

A loop will go fast if we decrease our stability as much as possible, decrease our rotational inertia around pitch axis as much as possible, and present a stronger looping moment.

 

Generally, a loop starts when we apply the initial moment to an unstable body position and a loop stops when we apply sufficient moment in the opposite direction.

 

Initiating a loop from a style tuck position is relatively easy because we already exist in an unstable body position. So here, we should rather speak of most effective technique that will provide a fast start, fast stop and relatively easy coordination during the entire loop.

 

Many of various techniques for achieving this have various pros and cons. I choose to introduce you to the technique employed by true master of this discipline, Cheryl Stearns.

 

A loop starts from an unstable position, with forearms slightly forward and lowered. This way Cheryl further decreases her stability and produces the eccentric force i.e. a moment to start rotation. Here, there are no forces in couple that would create a perfect loop (CG rotation) because the only force producer, wind, is coming from the ground, but, there is initiating a loop from one side and stopping on the other, which is excellent for preventing of back sliding and excellent approximation of force couple.

    

              

 

After initial commanding, Cheryl rotates around her pitch axis while keeping her forearms perpendicular to the relative wind to maintain the maximum pitch moment. Once her thighs are parallel with forearms, she becomes rigid in elbows too, joining her forearms to the rotation action of the rest of the body. Finally, once she feels the air on the opposite side of her fists, she twists her forearms, facing her palms into the relative wind to stop rotation. Soon after arms, her legs are joining this stopping action too.

 

              

 

By using this technique, Cheryl stops a loop just at the starting style tuck position, with no backslide, no overshoot nor further oscillations, allowing immediate start of another turn. Also, by using this technique, she rotates almost exactly around the CG which gives her excellent time in loops.

 

 

***Additional masses***

 

In accordance with theory I explained earlier, we can conclude that every additional mass attached to our body can change our balancing situation and produce unwanted effects. Our rig, as a major additional mass must be placed in manner so that we, fully equipped, have the balancing picture described in previous sections. Proper tucking here plays an important role. But also, if, for some reason, we can’t get our desired elements in any tucked position, we should add extra weights on some end in order to put our CG on its proper place.

 

Once we have everything set, every other eventual additional masses attached to our body should be as small in size as possible, as close to our CG as possible and well secured. That way, the rotational inertia of these additional items will be kept to a minimum.

 

Now, if we look a bit further, we can also notice that we can even slightly increase our maneuverability in style if we use a high density extra weight concentrated to our CG, between our back and rig. This action will increase our freefall velocity, decrease our stability and just slightly increase our rotational inertia. In this case, if we rotate very precisely around our CG, a gain in freefall velocity and the associated gain in steering moment, exceeds the increase in rotational inertia.

 

Unfortunately, this is a real gamble! If we fail to rotate very close around the CG, the increased rotational inertia will overcome the gain from the increased steering moment and we will turn slower than without the weights. So, wearing an extra weight requires good knowledge and excellent skill to reap it’s benefits.

 

 

***Style Exercises***

 

1. After exit, learn to dive in the vertical position. Try to reach terminal velocity in this position, or dive as long as you can, still leaving enough time for your performance. Practice for as many jumps as you need in order to master the vertical dive.

Thomas Jeannerot, exit into vertical dive. Photo by: Oliver Platt

 

2. Learn to transition from a vertical dive into the unstable style tuck position. Learn to stay in this position for an indefinite period of time i.e. learn to maintain the active balance as long as necessary. Your point of balance should be a point that enables you to start the most effective turn. That means, your hands must be symmetrical, with the forearms on the opposite sides of your CG. Remember that you must be tucked tight enough so that your CG does not go (usually) too aft. If that is the case, you will not be able to position your hands so that you have your CG in the center of your force couple. This is very important otherwise, as we said earlier, you will have increased rotational inertia and you will not be able to turn fast enough. Practice this transition and proper steady style tuck position for as many jumps as necessary to master it. Also, try to find, fill and memorize your exact basic style tuck position so that you can easier come to it after turning maneuver and easier concentrate on maneuvering that comes after it.

 

3. Try to increase the degree of your instability on every jump. But also, always allow only the degree of instability that you can handle. Forcing yourself beyond your personal limits can put you in unnecessary bad attitudes and disappointments. Remember that, in sport performance, patience makes miracles.

 

4. While balanced in this style tuck position, start your turn. Start your turn with the arms relatively wide, deflecting the air symmetrically, at the same time, in the opposite directions. If it doesn’t go perfect, slow it down. Think about the laws we mentioned earlier. Keep your body in balance and apply on each hand just the amount of input that you can handle and make it coordinated so that you maintain your CG rotation. Slow CG rotation is always much better deal then a bit faster but off center. After many evaluations and setting yourself into a routine, try to increase your angular speed.  With a solid basic work done, you will find it easy to rotate around your CG and you will feel very natural to go into this position. Also, a fast and smooth rotation is always a good indication that you are rotating exactly around your CG!

 

Additionally speaking, in turns, some style jumpers use a Law of Conservation of Momentum, a phenomenon used by competitors in water jumps; spring board diving, platform diving and artistic ice skating. Starting wide and then cutting hands in…This technique however is a less effective than starting and stopping CG turns from the same unstable, relatively wide flight configuration.

 

5. Speaking about exercises for loops, please review part “Loops” of this article. While practicing loops, the critical parts are your position awareness and possible oscillations that you might encounter when returning into a primary style tuck position. Both of the problems are part of your progress curve and will be overcome faster if you have full understanding of physical laws just described in the previous sections.

 

Practice all these five style elements as long as necessary to establish routine. Routine in separate elements will provide you bigger mental space for concentrating on transitions from one maneuver to the next. Also, try to visualize every maneuver you are performing and have in peripheral thoughts the incoming one. Memorize the sensation you feel while commanding every maneuver and try to recall this data in every same next maneuver. Use every free moment on the ground for your mental training, visualizing positions and defining critical points of your performance. With a good preparation and mental work done, you will have much increased success.

 

 

***Final***

 

As we said in the beginning, although very simple in the initial description of maneuvers, four turns and two loops, classic style is a very complex skydiving discipline that requires a lot of skill, theoretical knowledge and practice. To become a good style jumper, you must be able to make good compromise between scientific requirements and your personal qualities.

 

 

 

                                                                                                                                                                                 Vladimir Milosavljevic & Tamara Koyn

 

*** This article was published in 2009 & 2010 in Australian Skydiver Magazine and Canpara (Canadian Parachute Association Magazine) respectively.